This appeared to be the case, as PLD expressed from buy Repotrectinib wild type A. haemolyticum inside host cells resulted in 84.4% loss of cell

viability as compared to untreated cells (Figure 4). This is in contrast to host cells invaded by the pld mutant, which had only a 17.7% loss of viability (Figure 4). Interestingly, when recombinant PLD is applied to the exterior of the host cell, it did not cause cytotoxicity, as measured by cell viability. This is not surprising in that PLD alone is unable to cause sufficient membrane perturbations to lyse non-nucleated cells such as erythrocytes [45]. Proper bacterial delivery of PLD to the host cell seems to be required for effects on host cell viability. Apoptosis was not detected following A. haemolyticum invasion of HeLa cells (Figure 5). Of all the organelles, the outer leaflet of the mitochondrial membrane is particularly rich in SM [17], and we hypothesized that PLD may target this structure, possibly AR-13324 datasheet leading to caspase 9 activation as part of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. However, caspase 9 activation was not detected following A. haemolyticum invasion of HeLa cells, nor was the activation of caspase 3/7 or 8, which are measures of general apoptosis or the extrinsic apoptosis pathway, respectively. We note that the findings from

these apoptosis studies must be tempered with caution in that they were performed in a cell line, and may not accurately reflect what is occurring in host tissue. The TEM study

confirms the intracellular invasion of HeLa cells by A. haemolyticum 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase and indicates that the pld mutant is unable to escape the invasion vacuole, at least by the measured time point Selleckchem ATM Kinase Inhibitor (Figure 6B). In contrast, the wild type is able to escape the vacuole (Figure 6C) and can cause host cell death (Figure 4), apparently by necrosis (Figure 6C, D). Direct measurement of necrosis has been difficult, and has traditionally used changes to cellular architecture rather than specific bio-markers. However, better data is emerging about of the types of cell processes that initiate necrosis within the host cell, and recently it was determined that PLD-mediated release of ceramides can play a central role in initiating cellular necrosis [46]. Necrosis as a cause of host cell death may not be surprising given that a hallmark of A. haemolyticum pharyngitis is localized inflammation [2]. Necrosis-induced inflammation may enhance the immune response or cause localized tissue damage which promotes bacterial dissemination. The balance of these possibilities may be tipped towards bacterial invasion in the case of individuals who are also immunocompromised, elderly or have other co-morbid factors, leading to the more invasive sequelae observed with A. haemolyticum infections in this patient population [8–13]. From these studies we conclude that PLD expressed by A. haemolyticum is responsible for efficient host cell adhesion by reorganizing lipid rafts, which presumably clusters adhesin receptors.