[13] Ascending trigeminal fibers also terminate in

several brainstem areas, including the periaqueductal gray (PAG), brainstem reticular formation, and nucleus raphe. These brainstem structures form the complex network of the endogenous pain modulating system. The descending projections from these nuclei have a strong influence on nociceptive perception, while the ascending projections control the execution of several pain responsive behaviors via functional see more modification of several cortical and subcortical areas. Alteration of various components of the trigeminal nociceptive system could contribute to an increase in headache frequency as seen in MOH. These alterations could include increased sensitivity of the peripheral and central trigeminal

nociceptive neurons, increased excitability of cortical neurons, and derangement of the central endogenous control system. Several lines of BGB324 clinical evidence suggest the hypothesis of neuronal hyperexcitability as a mechanism underlying MOH. The conclusion arises from neurophysiological, functional imaging, and neurochemical studies, as described following. It should be noted that the number of patients in most of these studies was rather small. The interpretation and generalization of results must be considered cautiously. Studies using clinical electrophysiological techniques indicate an increase in the neuronal excitability, at least in somatosensory and visual cortices, in patients with MOH.[14] For example, Ayzenberg selleck products et al showed that, in patients with MOH, sensory-evoked cortical potentials in response to electrical simulation on the forehead or limb were increased and became normalized after drug withdrawal.[15] Because this transient facilitation was found in both trigeminal and somatic nociceptive systems, it is more likely to

be controlled by supraspinal mechanisms. The dysfunction of supraspinal diffuse noxious inhibitory controls was supported by the finding of a decrease in augmentation of nociceptive threshold induced by a cold pressor test.[16] The finding of evoked-potential facilitation in MOH was confirmed by several subsequent studies. Coppola et al showed that patients with MOH had larger amplitude somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEP) than nonheadache controls, and lacked SEP habituation.[17] Using laser-evoked potentials to study habituation to nociceptive simulation, Ferraro et al showed that the deficient habituation was partly restored after successful treatment of MOH.[18] The observation of decreased magnetic suppression of perceptual accuracy implies an impairment of the cortical inhibitory process and may explain the increase in cortical excitability.