Applying this baseline or not did not change the pattern or overall significance of the observed effects. A comparable

approach was adopted to assess how response-mapped decision updates were encoded in interhemispheric beta-band activity (10–30 Hz) at central electrodes. For each participant, we calculated single-trial spectral power from 5 to 40 Hz at electrodes C3 (overlying the left motor cortex) and C4 (overlying the right motor cortex) and subtracted spectral power between these electrodes, C3 minus C4 or C4 minus C3, depending on the cardinal/diagonal response mapping used for each http://www.selleckchem.com/products/XAV-939.html participant; the motor electrode associated with “cardinal” responses (C4 if the participant responded “cardinal” with his or her left index finger, or C3 otherwise) was counted positively, whereas the motor electrode associated with “diagonal” responses was counted negatively. We used an approach analogous to a psychophysiological interaction analysis (Friston et al., 1997) to assess the relationship between the encoding of DUk and the decision weight wk assigned to that element in the subsequent categorical choice. We refer to this analysis scheme as a neural decoding approach because it quantifies

how trial-to-trial variability in the neural encoding of element k in the EEG—i.e., residuals from the encoding regression described above—covaried with its decision weighting across trials. To do so, we quantified whether and how much trial-to-trial Obeticholic Acid datasheet fluctuations in EEG signals exerted a modulatory influence on the relationship between the eight decision updates and choice via multivariate parametric regression. In other words, we determined whether EEG-informed regressions of choice led to a significant increase in prediction accuracy. This type of approach is often called “psychophysiological,” because it assesses how trial-to-trial variability in the EEG (i.e., a physiological Vasopressin Receptor variable) modulates the relationship between decision updates and the subsequent categorical choice (i.e., a psychological variable). Within the general linear

model framework, a psychophysiological modulation can take either of two forms: (1) a multiplicative modulation, or interaction, corresponding to a modulation of the decision weight wk assigned to one (or several) of the eight elements in the subsequent choice; or (2) an additive modulation, corresponding to a modulation of response bias—i.e., the probability of a “cardinal” or “diagonal” response irrespective of element k. In all psychophysiological analyses, choice was thus predicted via two separate modulatory terms on top of the weighted decision updates wk · DUk and the overall response bias b entered as offset terms in a multivariate parametric regression: (1) the interaction between each decision update DUk and the corresponding EEG encoding residuals rk,t, and (2) the main effect of EEG encoding residuals rk,t.