B6Idd3 mice exhibit an increased suppressor activity compared to NOD CD4+CD25+ T cells. To determine whether the protection mediated by NOD.B6Idd3 CD4+CD25+ T cells was due to quantitative or qualitative differences within the pool of CD62LhiFoxP3+Tregs, the suppressor

activity of these immunoregulatory effectors was tested in vitro. CD62Llo- and CD62Lhi-expressing CD4+CD25+ T cells were FACS sorted from the PaLN of 16-wk-old NOD.B6Idd3 and NOD female mice, and then cultured at various ratios with naïve CD4+ T cells from the spleen of NOD mice. As expected, CD62LloCD4+CD25+ T cells from either NOD.B6Idd3 or NOD female mice were inefficient at suppressing proliferation of the stimulated CD4+ T cells (Fig. 5D). On the other hand, CD62LhiCD4+CD25+ T cells effectively suppressed proliferation of the responder CD4+ click here T cells. Furthermore, no significant difference in suppressor activity of NOD.B6Idd3 and NOD

CD62LhiFoxP3+Tregs was detected (Fig. 5D). Therefore, the enhanced suppressor activity detected in the PaLN of NOD.B6Idd3 mice is due to an increased number of CD62LhiFoxP3+Tregs, consistent with results obtained in the above co-adoptive transfer experiments (Fig. 5C). Since IL-2 Pirfenidone secretion by conventional T cells is limited in NOD mice compared with NOD.B6Idd3 animals (Supporting Information Fig. 1) 38, then increasing the level of “endogenous” IL-2 would be expected to enhance the frequency of CD62LhiFoxP3+Tregs in vivo. To test this hypothesis, 10-wk-old NOD female mice were injected intramuscularly with a doxycycline inducible adeno-associated virus (AAV) recombinant encoding IL-2 (AAV-Tet-IL-2). No difference was detected in the frequency of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells

in AAV-Tet-IL-2 treated but uninduced NOD mice or animals left untreated (Fig. 6A and B). In contrast, NOD mice treated with AAV-Tet-IL-2 and in new which IL-2 transgene expression was induced exhibited an increased frequency of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ in all tissues tested (Fig. 6A and B), and showed a significant increase in CD62Lhi-expressing CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells in the PLNs (Fig. 6C). Furthermore, addition of IL-2 to FACS-sorted CD62Llo-expressing CD4+CD25+ T cells upregulated expression of CD62L in vitro (Fig. 6D). These results indicate that: (i) IL-2 availability in vivo regulates the frequency of CD62LhiFoxP3+Tregs, and (ii) IL-2 can “convert” CD62LloFoxP3+Tregs into CD62LhiFoxP3+Tregs in vitro. Analyses of NOD mice congenic for protective Idd3 intervals have shown that aberrant expression of IL-21 and IL-2 influences various aspects of β-cell autoimmunity in NOD mice 34–38. Increased expression of IL-21 and IL-21R by T cells is associated with enhanced development of pathogenic T effectors in NOD mice through, for instance, disruption of T-cell homeostasis 34, 36, 40–42. IL-21 has also been reported to render conventional T cells resistant to the suppressor effects of FoxP3+Tregs 43, 44.