If this is not the

case, as for intracellular Ca2 + in RBCs of patients with sickle cell disease,59 cytosolic free Ca2 + cannot be estimated from the 45Ca2 + distribution between the cells and the medium. Most of the Ca2 + in that case is accumulated in the intracellular inside-out vesicles that are most likely enriched with Ca2 + pumps,60 and an increase in the intracellular45Ca2 + levels is not always followed by the activation of Ca2 +-sensitive K+ (Gardos) channels. Measurements of ion fluxes bear a common limitation: flux measurements are performed in suspension, and the considerations discussed above in “Obtaining pure cell preparations” (Section 3.1) apply. So far, studies Cabozantinib solubility dmso to assess the role of WBC and platelet contamination in possible artefact generation when measuring ion fluxes using radioactive tracers are lacking. Another point that is seldom taken into account is the effect of the electro-neutrality of compartments on ion movements. Cation movements, such as those mediated by Gardos channel activity, that lead to cell dehydration are known to be rate limited by anion movements. In many cell suspension experiments, thiocyanate (SCN−) is used to bypass this limitation of anion movements. Ten millimolar is usually sufficient to saturate this

effect,61 avoiding important changes in the isoelectric point of impermeant anions and RBC hydration that are observed at higher SCN− concentrations.62 Apart from ion flux experiments, this could also apply to patch-clamp experiments aiming to investigate cation channel activity. Even if this consideration does Palbociclib ic50 not apply

in the whole-cell configuration because the anion supply is provided by the pipette content, it can impair the movement of cations in the cell-attached configuration. In this case, run-down of channel activity might be observed and conclusions can be drawn erroneously. During the past three decades, electrophysiological studies have revealed that the human RBC membrane is endowed with a large variety of ion channels.[63], [64], [65], [66] and [67] However, their physiological role remains widely unclear; they barely participate Oxalosuccinic acid in the RBC homeostasis, which is based on an almost total absence of cationic permeability and minute anionic conductance.68 Nevertheless, due to the pioneering work of Hamill on human and frog RBCs,[61] and [69] the patch-clamp technique applied to RBCs has proven to be a powerful method to decipher the involvement of ionic conductances mainly in pathophysiological scenarios.[32], [42], [62], [65], [70], [71] and [72] The main problem when attempting to perform patch-clamp on RBCs lies in the small size of the cells, which especially holds true for mammalian RBCs (2.1–9.4 μm) (cp. Section (3.3) “Interspecies studies”). This small size imposes major challenges. The opto-mechanical properties of the hardware require high-quality microscopes and at least 20 × objectives.