The significant decrease in the type I IFN signature of pristane-injected Irf5−/− mice may also contribute to the loss of IgG2a class switching, although recent data suggest that exogenous type I IFN does not rescue the defect in IgG2a secretion in Irf5−/− B cells [[24]]. Previous studies on IFNAR−/− mice [[23, 31]] provide further support of differences in lupus development between Irf5−/−

and IFNAR−/− mice. Pristane-injected IFNAR−/− mice retained positive ANA staining with a mean titer value lower than wild-type controls and equivalent IgG2a autoantibodies [[31]]. In the FcRIIb−/− murine lupus model, mice lacking Irf5 were completely protected from disease development while mice lacking IFNAR maintained a substantial level of residual disease [[23]]. These data support distinct phenotypic differences between Irf5−/− and IFNAR−/− mice suggesting Vemurafenib chemical structure that the role of IRF5 in lupus pathogenesis exceeds beyond

its regulation of type I IFN production. Interestingly, we also detected significantly elevated levels of IL-10 in the sera of Irf5−/− mice 2 weeks postpristane injection (Fig. 3A). Given that IL-10 is a Th2 cytokine and downregulates IFN-α production [[56, 57]], early expression in Irf5−/− mice may indirectly contribute to reduction of the type I IFN signature. Recent data in human macrophages reveal that IL-10 is a direct target of IRF5 and overexpression of IRF5 represses IL-10 expression while M1 murine macrophages lacking Irf5 express elevated levels [[58]]. Although IRF5 has been shown to directly regulate type I IFN expression [[15, 42]], other indirect Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Library cost mechanisms via IRF5 may contribute to the downregulation of a type I IFN signature in pristane-induced

lupus. With respect to serum IL-10 levels, our data suggest that two mechanisms exist that control the acute (2 weeks) and chronic (6 months) expression of type I IFNs in this model. In summary, our study highlights the regulatory role of IRF5 in the onset of pathological hypergammaglobulinemia in pristane-induced lupus. We reveal that Irf5 is indispensable Edoxaban for the maintenance and production of IgG2a/c autoantibodies. In addition, we demonstrate that IRF5 regulates not only CSR, but also antigen specificity. We show that loss of Irf5 significantly alters cyto-kine production in response to pristane, ultimately skewing the cytokine (and autoantibody) profile toward a Th2-like response, and inhibits the type I IFN signature that is critical for disease pathogenesis in this model of lupus. Given the current data in human SLE and murine models of lupus [[35, 36, 39]], it would be expected that factors capable of regulating the Th1/Th2 balance would potentially alter lupus development. To this extent, we also provide evidence that T-cell polarization is altered in Irf5−/− mice and that IRF5 has a critical role in T-cell activation.