The ‘universal’ nature of the vaccine (protects against homologous and non-homologous virus), the absence of robust natural immunity to an antigen critical for pathogenesis such as site II on the F protein, the genetic stability of the palivizumab binding site [42] as compared to other sites such as antigenic site Ø [43], and the safety and the apparent potency of the vaccine, reinforce the premise that efficacy testing of the vaccine is warranted. The clinical development of an RSV vaccine may be divided amongst three populations: infants, infants/preschool children Ibrutinib and the elderly. Maternal immunization, the

active immunization of pregnant women to provide trans-placental transferred antibody for passive protection of the infant, is a priority strategy for Thiazovivin cost protection of young infants

against RSV and has been successfully employed for tetanus, pertussis and influenza vaccines [44]. Older infants and toddlers may also benefit from active immunization and many strategies including live viral vaccines and purified subunit vaccines have been employed in early clinical testing [45]. An RSV purified F protein showed clinical promise in children and CF patients, but proved difficult to manufacture and stabilize [22] and [46]. The clinical evaluation of a novel vaccine must also take into account the history of the formalin inactivated RSV vaccine (Pfizer Lot 100 vaccine) that unexpectedly caused severe exacerbation of pulmonary disease in children who subsequently acquired RSV infections [33] and [47]. Although the precise mechanisms underlying these findings remain open to debate [48], the phenomenon of vaccine-enhanced RSV disease was limited to RSV-naïve infants immunized with FI-RSV and has not been observed either with passive antibody prophylaxis (monoclonal or polyclonal) in clinical trials using purified F protein vaccines in adults or older RSV-seropositive Thymidine kinase children [22], [46] and [49].

Thus, the path forward for development of a vaccine in older infants and children will need to be carefully considered. However, a vaccine that induces high affinity antibodies that exhibit neutralization or fusion inhibition in vitro, largely absent in FI-RSV vaccinated infants [50], and is associated with protection without disease exacerbation in vivo in relevant animal models and finally shows efficacy in another setting such as maternal immunization may be considered in the absence of a licensed vaccine for this population. Finally, the RSV disease burden in elderly and high risk adults and the data indicating an F subunit vaccine is safe along with the absence of historical safety concerns due to enhanced disease in this population suggests further testing of the safety and efficacy as a seasonal respiratory vaccine is warranted. The induction of PCA by the RSV F nanoparticle vaccine provides an important rationale for further clinical evaluation in the relevant susceptible populations. We thank Kwan Ngai for technical support.