Using molecular, pharmacological, and functional biophysical approaches the principal findings in these studies of mouse cholangiocytes are: (1) both small and large cholangiocytes express a repertoire of both P2X and P2Y receptors; (2) both small and large cholangiocytes develop polarized epithelial monolayers with a high transepithelial resistance and demonstrate rapid increases in [Ca2+]i and

transepithelial secretion (Isc) upon exposure to extracellular nucleotides; (3) nucleotide-stimulated secretion is dependent on IP3 receptor-mediated increases in [Ca2+]i and Ca2+-activated Cl− channel activation; (4) both small and large cholangiocytes demonstrate mechanosensitive ATP release which is dependent on intact vesicular trafficking pathways; and (5) the magnitude of mechanosensitive ATP release is significantly greater in small versus Metformin large cholangiocytes. Thus, these studies demonstrate

that both small and large cholangiocytes Napabucasin chemical structure express all components of the purinergic signaling axis and collectively, provide a working model for mechanosensitive ATP-stimulated secretion along intrahepatic bile ducts. Additionally, the ATP-mediated secretory pathway identified in the mouse small cholangiocytes, which do not exhibit secretin-stimulated secretion,3, 17 represent the first identification of a secretory pathway in these specialized cells. The existence of a gradient along the biliary axis, wherein 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 ATP released from small cholangiocytes “upstream” may represent an important paracrine signal to the “downstream” P2 receptor-expressing large cholangiocytes, has important implications for bile formation (Fig. 8). Although regulated ATP release has been identified in all liver cells studied, including both human and rat hepatic parenchymal cells and biliary

epithelial cells,20, 22 these are the first studies to characterize ATP release in mouse cholangiocytes, and several observations deserve highlighting. First, the magnitude of ATP release from small cholangiocytes was significantly greater than that from large cholangiocytes. Because the mechanism of cholangiocyte ATP release has not been identified, the cellular basis for this difference in ATP release cannot be determined. Although CFTR has been proposed as a regulator of ATP release,12, 24, 25 MSC do not express CFTR,17 suggesting alternate ATP release pathways in these cells. One proposed alternate mechanism involves exocytosis of ATP-enriched vesicles. In fact, biliary cells possess a dense population of vesicles ∼140 nm in diameter in the subapical space,26 and increases in cell volume increase the rate of exocytosis to values sufficient to replace ∼30% of plasma membrane surface area within minutes.