We will return to this when discussing

the normative framework for PCS. Another issue is the ‘disability rights’ critique. The so-called ‘expressivist argument’ states that taking measures to avoid the birth of a child with a specific disorder or disability expresses a discriminatory view regarding the worth of the life of those living with such conditions (Parens and Asch 2000). If taken as a claim Aurora Kinase inhibitor about parental motives this cannot be maintained. Prospective parents may want to protect their child from harm, or they may feel that they would not be able to be good parents for a (severely) disabled child. None of these motives expresses a discriminatory attitude towards disabled persons (Knoppers et al. 2006). But the argument may also be directed against TSA HDAC concentration the systematic offer of reproductive testing for specific diseases. Does this not send the message that persons with the diseases screened for are a burden to society and would better not be born (Scully 2008)? There is certainly a risk that PCS may lead to reinforcing existing tendencies of stigmatization and discrimination (Wilfond and Fost 1990). Here again, much depends on how the programme is presented and conducted in practice. Objectives of offering PCS

As a form of reproductive screening, it would seem that PCS is better compared with autonomy-directed prenatal screening for Down syndrome and other foetal anomalies, than with prevention-directed screening for, eg, breast-cancer (Dondorp et al.

2010). Indeed, the arguments behind the strong emphasis on reproductive autonomy in the clinical genetics tradition seem equally relevant when PCS is concerned. However, there may be some room for differentiation between PCS as a top-down initiative from the health care system (as in the case of the recently introduced obligatory ADP ribosylation factor offer of PCS for CF in the USA; ACOG 2011) and community-based initiatives targeting high profile genetic risks for serious diseases within that specific community or population. Whereas reduced birth rates of affected children should not be regarded as the measure of success of the former type of programmes, doing so may seem less problematic for programmes of the latter kind (Laberge et al. 2010). The difference being that in programmes set up in answer to a need for prevention as self-defined by a community in which many families are struck by a high burden of disease, most participants will actively support the aim of bringing down the birth-prevalence of the disease, whereas this is less obvious in top-down programmes aimed at populations rather than communities. With regard to this tentative distinction we make the following comments.