Slices were cut in ice-cold sucrose-based solution (in mM: 248 sucrose, 1.3 MgSO4, 5 KCl, 2.4 CaCl2, 1.2 KH2PO4, 26 NaHCO3, 10 d-glucose, pH 7.4, bubbled with 95% O2/5% CO2) and stored in standard Krebs–Henseleit solution (in mM: 124 NaCl, 1.3 MgSO4, 5 KCl, 2.4 CaCl2, 1.2 KH2PO4, 26 NaHCO3, 10 d-glucose, pH 7.4, bubbled with 95% O2/5% Veliparib cost CO2) at room temperature prior to patch-clamp recording. Current-clamp recordings were made with patch-pipettes (thick-walled borosilicate glass, coated with Sylgard 184, fire-polished) and an Axopatch 200B amplifier in fast current-clamp mode (Axon Instruments,

Union City, CA), from slices superfused with Krebs–Henseleit solution at ~ 23 °C, in keeping with previous patch-clamp studies of granule cells at a similar temperature (Brickley et al., 2001, Brickley et al., 2007, Cathala et al., 2003 and Pugh and Jahr, 2011). Pipettes contained,

in mM: 126 KCH3SO3, 4 KCl, 10 HEPES, 4 MgATP, 5 EGTA, 4 NaCl, 0.5 CaCl2, pH 7.2 with KOH, and had resistances of 4.5–8.5 MΩ. Constant current injections were applied once every 5 s, from − 10 pA in + 2 pA steps. Recordings of voltage were low-pass GSK2118436 manufacturer filtered at 10 kHz (4 pole Bessel filter on the amplifier), acquired at 62.5 kHz with a Cambridge Electronic Design (CED) power 1401 A/D interface and Signal software (CED, Cambridge, UK), and analyzed with Signal software and Origin software (Microcal, Northampton, MA). Membrane potentials were corrected for a calculated junction potential of 8.8 mV. Action potential

(AP) parameters were measured for the first three APs elicited at or just above rheobase (the current injection required for Low-density-lipoprotein receptor kinase initiation of APs) and averaged. Voltage-threshold and maximum rates of fall and rise were measured using phase-plane plots (supplementary Signal script, Steven Clifford, CED) (Bean, 2007). The first three APs evoked near rheobase were averaged for each cell, and these were averaged across cells to generate the ‘average wild-type AP’ and the ‘average Ts65Dn AP’. The input capacitance (Cin) of each cell was measured in two ways. One measure was calculated from the time-constant of a single exponential function fitted to the voltage deflection generated by a negative current injection (− 10 or − 8 pA) ( D’Angelo et al., 1995). A second measure was taken from amplifier settings used to cancel current transients generated by 5 mV jumps in voltage-clamp mode, as in several previous patch-clamp studies of granule cells ( Brickley et al., 2001 and Cathala et al., 2003). GCs of all ages behave as a single electrical compartment and the measured Cin encompasses capacitances of the soma and dendrites ( Cathala et al., 2003). The Cin calculated from fits to voltage-changes caused by negative current injections was used to express current as current-density (pA/pF).

The second susceptibility occurs under distributing pumping conditions, during which significant reductions in groundwater elevations are apparent in narrow valleys (Fig. 8D). Again, this is most likely associated with the aquifer geometry and area of contributing recharge. As demonstrated in Fig. 7, increases in both development density and water volume per pad elicit heightened water table responses; this trend was shared by all sources. Although water table change was still undetectable for stream withdrawals at the maximum development tested,

heightened resolution and smaller scale models might allow for Trichostatin A better understanding of the connection between streams and groundwater. Changes to stream flow in response to high-volume water withdrawals are spatially RO4929097 in vivo variable. The most significant reduction to stream flow is concentrated in one region of the model (Fig. 9, cross-sections 7, 8, and 9). Other areas of the model respond relatively uniformly to extraction scenarios, with the percent reduction in stream flow increasing with increasing development density and water volume per pad. Within the minimum development range, extracting water from both municipal pumping wells and streams

reduces stream flow by less than 2% throughout most of the stream network (Fig. 9A). At the maximum density of development, stream flow is reduced by up to 13% in a localized region (Fig. 9D). Under those same development conditions, however, stream flow reduction still remains under 3% throughout most of the stream network. Although the magnitude of stream flow reduction changes Aspartate based on water source, the general spatial distribution persists (Fig. 10). Streams throughout the model respond consistently to applied withdrawal scenarios with the exception of stream cross-sections 7, 8, and 9, which exhibit nearly three times the stream flow reduction as compared to the rest of the stream segments. The combination source and stream withdrawals produced the greatest response in stream flow whereas distributed

pumping scenario results in a less dramatic response (Fig. 10). Extracting from municipal wells causes more spatial variability in stream flow reduction as compared to the combination source (Fig. 10, cross-section 8). There is a positive relationship between stream flow reduction and volume of extracted water which is determined by both well pad density and water volume per pad. Relatively uniform response throughout most of the stream segments emphasizes the markedly greater response at cross-sections 7, 8, and 9 (Fig. 9). These locations are in narrow valleys and represent streams with lesser annual discharge. These two factors dictate the capacity of groundwater–surface water exchange when withdrawals from either the aquifer or the streams are applied. Downstream parts of the stream network (Fig.

Silanol (Si OH) groups on the SAS surface render untreated SAS hydrophilic with silanol numbers per square nanometre of SAS surface varying for the different SAS find more forms between 2 (pyrogenic), up to 6 (precipitated) and up to 8 (gel). A typical treating agent for surface modification is dichlorodimethylsilane, which hydrolyses to form polydimethylsiloxane. Polydimethylsiloxy units bind to surface silanols via condensation reactions. On the treated SAS the original treating

agent, dichlorodimethylsilane, is no longer detectable. Treated SAS bears on its surface both the hydrophobic entities (polydimethlysiloxy units) and the remaining hydrophilic entities, i.e., surface silanols. The core material is still amorphous silica. According to the ISO Core

Terms (ISO, 2010) nanomaterials are industrial materials intentionally produced, manufactured or engineered to have unique properties check details or specific composition at the nanoscale, which is defined as the size range “from approximately 1 nm to 100 nm”. Nanomaterials are either nano-objects (nanofibres, nanoplates or nanoparticles with a size of 1–100 nm in at least one dimension) or nanostructured (i.e. having an internal or surface structure at the nanoscale) ( Fig. 3). Pyrogenic, precipitated, and gel SAS forms are composed of aggregates and agglomerates of primary particles. Few, if any, primary particles would be expected to exist outside of the synthesis reactor. Aggregates consist of strongly bonded or fused particles.

The resulting external surface area may be significantly smaller than the sum of calculated surface areas of the individual components (ISO, 2008). SAS aggregates assemble in chains (pyrogenic SAS) or – in liquid phase – in clusters (precipitated and gel forms). Precipitated silica and silica gel contain a larger Florfenicol amount of bound water and tend to agglomerate, causing them to have an even larger particle size. Agglomerates are assemblies of loosely bound particles or aggregates, where the resulting external surface area is similar to the sum of the surface areas of the individual components. Agglomerates are held together by weak forces, such as van der Waals forces and simple physical adhesion forces (ECETOC, 2006, Gray and Muranko, 2006 and ISO, 2008). Hence, complex aciniform (grape-like) particle aggregates constitute the smallest inseparable entities in commercial pyrogenic, precipitated and gel SAS. In the vast majority of commercially available grades, these aggregates have no dimensions less than 100 nm. Data from Gray and Muranko (2006) and Ma-Hock et al. (2007) indicate that even for conditions of high-energy dispersion and/or extreme mechanical processing (e.g., uniaxial compression, elastomer mixing, ultrasonication), there is little to no liberation of primary particles. Colloidal SAS consists of spherical and non-porous silica particles dispersed in a liquid phase, e.g., water. Often, such suspensions are stabilised electrostatically.

Aliquots of B. jararaca, B. jararacussu, B. moojeni, B. neuwiedi, and B. alternatus venom were obtained from the Serpentarium at the Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo), Brazil. For each species, venom was extracted from three snakes captured in different regions of São Paulo state and pooled. The venom aliquots were stored

at −20 °C until analysis. Protein content was measured by the Lowry method, modified by Hartree (1972), using bovine serum albumin as the standard. Sheep erythrocytes (Newprov, Pinhais, Brazil) were collected in heparinized tubes (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA), SP600125 concentration centrifuged for 20 min at 300 × g at 4 °C, washed 3 times with PBS, pH 7.4, and centrifuged again. Chemicals and reagents were purchased from Sigma (Sigma Chemical

Co., St. Louis, MO, USA). A modified kinetic indirect hemolytic assay, standardized in our laboratory (Tamarozzi et al., 2006), was performed to measure PLA2 activity. We used egg yolk as a substrate to develop a turbidimetric assay based on the capacity of snake venom PLA2s to hydrolyze egg phosphatidylcholine, Bleomycin concentration producing lysophosphatidylcholine and fatty acids. The lysophosphatidylcholine accumulates on erythrocyte membranes, promoting their disruption and initiating the hemolysis process (Bierbaum et al., 1979). This assay was conducted in triplicate in a 96-well microplate (Costar, Corning the Incorporated, NY, USA) and samples were analyzed at 650 nm, considering that this is well outside of the hemoglobin absorption wavelength and that the absorbance is proportional to the cell concentration. The hemolysis solution consisted of

10 ml of Tris–HCl buffer, pH 7.4, containing 140 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM CaCl2, 25 μl of egg yolk diluted 1:4 (v/v) in sterile saline solution (NaCl 0.9%), and 1.5 μl of erythrocytes. The reaction mixture was prepared by adding 175 μl of hemolysis solution and 75 μl of venom samples (20 μg/ml). The microplate was incubated at 37 °C and the decrease in absorbance was recorded at intervals of 5, 10, and 15 min. A saline solution containing no venom was used as a negative control. The blank solution was prepared by adding venom to the hemolysis solution to achieve a final concentration of 80 μg/ml. After 1 h of incubation at 37 °C, this solution was used to calibrate the microplate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). Statistical analyses were based on the absorbance after 90 min of reaction. Proteolytic activity was assayed by a modified caseinolytic method (Sanchez et al., 1992). The reaction mixture consisted of venom (50 and 100 μg/ml) diluted in 500 μl of 50 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.4, 2.0 mM CaCl2, and 0.5% (w/v) denatured casein. After 3 h of incubation at 37 °C, the reaction was terminated by adding 500 μl of 10% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid (TCA).

, 2009). Expression recognition skills were assessed in the DPs reported here using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test, and when compared with appropriate published norming data (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001), no deficits were observed. Lower-level vision was also assessed

in order to check whether the participants’ difficulties in face recognition were selleck chemicals underpinned by basic perceptual impairments. Four sub-tests from the Birmingham Object Recognition Battery (BORB: Humphreys & Riddoch, 1993) that have been used in previous investigations (e.g., Bate, Cook, Mole, & Cole, 2013; Garrido et al., 2009) were selected. In the Length Match test, participants are required to judge whether two lines are of the same length; in the Size Match test they judge whether two circles are of the same size; in the Orientation Match test they decide whether two lines are parallel or not; and in the Position of the Gap Match test they decide whether the position of the gap in two circles is in the

same place or not. Basic object recognition was tested using the Object Decision test from the BORB. In this test, the participant is presented with a series of line drawings which depict selleck chemical animals or tools. In some trials the drawings represent ‘unreal’ objects (i.e., the picture shows half of one object combined with half of another object), and the participant is asked to decide whether each of 128 drawings represents a real or unreal object. Appropriate norming data for these tests are presented within the BORB, and while eight of the DP participants did not show any evidence of lower-level perceptual difficulties, DP7 was impaired on the Length Match test and DP10 was impaired on both the Length Match and Object Decision tests. As described above, this may reflect the heterogeneity of the condition and the possibility that different sub-types of DP exist. Because DP7 and DP10 only performed poorly on one or two of the five sub-tests, any lower-level visual impairments were not deemed to be severe and the participants

were not removed from our sample. Ten Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase control participants also participated in this study. They were matched to the DP participants according to age (M = 46.8, SD = 13.2), gender (seven male) and estimated IQ [using the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR): Wechsler, 2001]. All participants reported normal or corrected-to-normal vision. Exclusion criteria were pregnancy, medication, significant medical or psychiatric illness, history of substance abuse, and epilepsy. All participants provided written consent and participated on a voluntary basis. The study was approved by the departmental Ethics Committee at Bournemouth University. Face memory task: Two new versions of the CFMT ( Duchaine & Nakayama, 2006) were created for use in this experiment (see Fig. 1A). The CFMT is a measure commonly used to assess facial identity memory ( Richler et al., 2011 and Wilmer et al.

In addition, torsional moments at 0.33, 0.5, and 0.66 L are compared in Fig. 27. The difference in torsional moment at the resonance frequency, 0.95 rad/s, is acceptable. However, a large discrepancy between the models is found in the vertical selleck inhibitor bending moment near the resonance frequency, 1.25 rad/s. It is difficult to determine what causes this difference because plots near the frequency are not enough in the experimental result. A possible reason is that the linear springing is not accurately produced in the experiment because it is hard to keep the regularity in the experimental condition of the high wave frequency. More elaborate experiment for linear

springing should be done for a meaningful comparison. The same discrepancy between the other computation and the experiment was shown in the work of Bigot et al. (2011). The three numerical models give similar results, but the modified beam model gives overestimated sectional forces. This is due to the inconsistency of the eigenvectors and mass model as shown in the results for the 6500 TEU containership. In real operating conditions, the ship goes through irregular waves. Springing responses will be induced by both linear and nonlinear excitations, the frequency of which is equal to the natural frequency. One of the main excitations will be the 2nd selleck compound or 3rd order component

in the Froude–Krylov and restoring force, because energy densities of these frequency waves are high in most cases. Conditions for 2nd and 3rd harmonic springing

simulations are shown in Table 11. The still water loads are calculated and shown in Fig. 28 prior to a comparison of dynamic loads. Fig. 29 shows nonlinear springing responses in the above conditions. A significant difference between the numerical models and the experimental model is found in the 2nd harmonic springing of 2-node torsion. The experimental model shows larger 1st and 2nd order components than those of all the numerical models. In the 3rd harmonic springing responses of 2-node torsion, this tendency more dominantly appears. The ship has large Farnesyltransferase pitch and roll motions at this frequency, so the weakly nonlinear approach may be not enough to approximate nonlinear excitation. In the case of 2-node vertical bending springing, the numerical models show larger 2nd harmonic responses compared to the experiment. However, the 3rd harmonic response is larger in the experimental model. It is considered that the tendency of the differences is related to large motions. When the ship has large rigid body motions, the springing responses tend to be smaller in the numerical simulation compared to those in the experiment. Whipping responses to regular waves are simulated in a head sea with different forward speeds. The wave amplitude and height are 14.3 s and 6.0 m, respectively. Fig. 30 shows whipping responses to slamming loads calculated by GWM. Good agreement is observed between the numerical and experimental models in cases of 5 knots and 13.

maydis and isolate WB(BJ)-95-1 of C. lunata was induced on sorghum grain medium. Inocula were prepared by suspending spores Ferroptosis inhibitor of B. maydis and C. lunata at concentrations of 1 × 105 to 1 × 106 mL− 1 and 1 × 104 to 1 × 105 mL− 1, respectively. Plants at growth stage V10 were separately inoculated with approximately 10 mL of each inoculum. Seeds of each line were grown at the experimental station of Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences (LAAS), Shenyang, Liaoning province, China. The susceptible line Dan 340 and the highly susceptible line Huobai were

grown as susceptible controls. The culture of C. zeae-maydis, which was isolated from infected leaves in Shenyang, was incubated on maize leaf powder plus CaCO3 agar (MLPCA) medium [24] to promote sporulation. Spores were washed out with distilled water containing 0.1% Tween-20 and suspended at a concentration of 2.5 × 103 mL− 1 for inoculation. At growth stages V9 to V11, inoculation R428 cell line was performed by perfusion of approximately 10 mL inoculum into the whorl of central leaves from the tops

of plants using a high-pressure injection apparatus equipped with a 20-mL container without pinhead. Sixty seeds of each line were planted in 2 rows 5 m long at the LAAS experimental station. Lines Qi 319 and Huangzaosi were grown as resistant and susceptible controls, respectively. In spring prior to inoculation, urediospores of P. sorghi, which had been collected from the infected leaves in the preceding year and maintained in a sealed container at − 20 °C, were incubated in a container with high humidity for 2–4 h at 20–25 °C and then suspended in distilled water containing 0.1% Tween-20 at a concentration of 5 × 104 mL− 1. Spore suspension was sprayed on the leaves of each plant at growth stages V6 to V8. The inoculation was repeated 10 d after the first inoculation. Reactions to southern rust were recorded under natural infection

conditions by growing the lines at Sanya, Hainan Chorioepithelioma province, China, where the disease is prevalent each year. Forty plants of each line were grown in a 2-row plot 3 m long. Disease severity was recorded at growth stage R5 at the end of February each year when the disease occurred severe [25]. Each test of disease reactions of all lines was performed in two consecutive years in the same location. Twenty plants of each line were grown in a single row 5.0 m long, 0.7 m apart unless otherwise stated. Given that yield loss due to foliar diseases is associated with the areas of lesions on the leaf surface, assessment of reactions to each disease was performed by separating plants into different categories based on the three leaves above and below ears (functional leaves for grain growth).

Brown E.L. et al. CDK inhibitor drugs (2009b) already described the characteristics of these mice infected with severe lung infection or skin infection caused by S. aureus strain LAC, in terms of the course of infection,

histopathology and quantitative cultures from the infected tissue. Mice in both infection groups survived the infection. In their study, the antibody reactivity to a panel of S. aureus proteins was measured 4 weeks after skin infection with S. aureus strain LAC. These mice developed a significant response to LukF, LukS, alpha toxin, and Efb. We also observed increased IgG levels against LukS and alpha toxin at 5 weeks after skin infection. However IgG levels for LukF and Efb were low. Next, the multiplex S. aureus antibody assay was applied to characterize the IgG profile in sera from mice with similar infections, intravenously-induced bacteraemia, caused by different S. aureus strains, isolate P or isolate S. These studies revealed different IgG responses against both S. aureus isolates. This observation in mice correlates well with data obtained in patients with S. aureus bacteraemia, in whom antibody responses during the course of infection were specific for each patient ( Verkaik et al., SCH772984 cost 2010a). In mice with

bacteraemia caused by S. aureus isolate S we observed a broader IgG response compared to mice with bacteraemia caused by S. aureus isolate P, indicating that each S. aureus strain, exhibiting its own specific protein expression during infection, generates a characteristic IgG antibody profile over time. Most striking were the IgG levels for the sortase-anchored surface protein IsdA, the immune modulator Efb, superantigen-like

proteins SSL1 and 5, and pheromone the nuclease Nuc, being significantly increased in isolate S-infected mice compared to isolate P-infected mice. Summarizing, the data from the present study show that a bead-based multiplex S. aureus antibody assay can be successfully applied for investigating IgG responses related to S. aureus infections in mice. Only a small serum volume in the order of one to a few microlitres is required. With this technique the immunogenicity of different proteins during the course of different S. aureus infections can be determined in mice. When measuring antibody levels in sera from patients, it is hard to assess the humoral immune response towards the causative S. aureus strain in infection, as patients probably had some or more previous encounters with different S. aureus strains. The use of S. aureus-free mice, which never have had contact with S. aureus before induction of the experimental infection, enables to assess and quantify the primary antibody responses to specific S. aureus proteins, and to investigate whether the immunogenicity of S. aureus proteins depended on the site of infection and/or the S. aureus isolate causing the infection. Whereas our study was focused exclusively on IgG directed against S.

and Rhizosolenia as minor contributors. Two weeks after the initial phytoplankton peak (07/04/2009), a second minor peak occurred dominated by a Chattonella related species. The algal activities lead to rapid

exhaustion of nutrients that together with eukaryote grazing contributed to phytoplankton bloom Dasatinib research buy termination. Subsequently, the increased algal mortality caused a massive amount of substrates to become available to the microbial community. In an integrated approach Teeling et al. showed that Alphaproteobacteria dominated during the pre-bloom phase comprising two thirds SAR11 clade and one third Roseobacter clade members ( Fig. 1b). With the onset of the bloom, relative Alphaproteobacteria abundances diminished and Flavobacteria relative abundances increased and exhibited a notable succession of Ulvibacter spp., Formosa spp. and Polaribacter spp. ( Fig. 1c). Gammaproteobacteria reacted later with increased relative abundances of SAR92 clade and

Reinekea members ( Fig. 1a). The latter reached high abundances within only one week, and peaked on the 14/04/2009. The combination Vorinostat purchase of CARD-FISH, pyrotag and metagenome analysis proved to be effective for characterizing the bacterioplankton composition, but none of these approaches allows to assess and compare the metabolic states of distinct bacterioplankton clades (Blazewicz et al., 2013). Frequency analysis of expressed rRNA sequences has been widely used as proxy to assess the most active fraction in environmental samples (Hunt et al., 2013, Männistö et al., 2012 and Gentile et al., 2006), since Resveratrol metabolically active bacteria are considered to have higher rRNA expression levels than latent or starved cells (Kemp et al., 1993). However, Blazewicz et al. (2013) recently evaluated the limitations of rRNA levels as indicator of microbial activity and pointed out that cellular rRNA content reflects past, current and future activities and are also indicative of different life strategies. Nevertheless, expressed rRNA sequences can provide valuable hints on in situ microbial activity levels. 91% (31/03/2009) and 84% (14/04/2009) of the expressed 16S rDNA fragments from directly

sequenced cDNA (16S cDNA) could be assigned to the dominant classes, Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria and Flavobacteria ( Fig. 2a), which mirrors the previous analysed community structure ( Fig. 2b-c). Rhodobacteraceae appeared to express a higher amount of genes encoding for 16S rRNA in the earlier than in the late sample ( Fig. 2a). Members of this family harbor up to five rRNA operons per cell ( Moran et al., 2007), which most likely enables them to rapidly respond to changing nutrients conditions ( Klappenbach et al., 2000). The distinct Rhodobacteraceae 16S cDNA peak in the early sample thus corroborates the hypothesis that members of the Roseobacter clade have the ability to rapidly shift metabolic functions in response to dynamic changes during phytoplankton blooms ( Giebel et al.

This behaviour was not absolute, however. MUPs stimulate the VNO, and the extent to which the VSN activation pattern differed between self and non-self MUP combinations correlated with the probability of countermarking to non-self [18••]. In other words, male mice may make quantitative judgements on when to countermark by pattern matching against their own MUP code. As MUP profiles get more similar with genetic-relatedness [31], this mechanism could underpin a range of male-male interactions

this website in complex social hierarchies. In recent years it has become clear that mammalian pheromones promote behaviour through a number of different mechanisms. While further examples of monomolecular signals initiating an innate behaviour via a single sensory circuit may well be found, it appears likely that complicated coding strategies GSK2118436 order have evolved to support

the complexity, and flexibility, of mammalian social behaviour. It is open to debate whether these signals, involving individuality and learning and often requiring context, meet the classical definition of a pheromone. Indeed some argue that mammalian pheromones do not exist at all [32], while others have proposed helpful modifications to classical definitions to encompass these new mechanisms 2 and 33]. Putting semantics aside, it is clear that the use of defined chemical stimuli to provoke behaviour has, and will continue, to shed insight into the social lives of mammals. Nothing declared. Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as: • of special interest The author thanks Ximena Ibarra-Soria and Gabriela Sánchez-Andrade for comments on this manuscript. I am supported by the Wellcome Trust (Grant No. 098051) and the EMBO Young Investigator Programme. “
“Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 2015, 1:xx–yy This review comes from a themed

issue on Cognitive neuroscience Edited by Cindy Lustig and Howard Eichenbaum http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.07.005 2352-1546/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Decades’ worth of research documents the involvement of the hippocampus in rapidly encoding new episodes, which are then transferred (i.e., consolidated) to neocortex over time. However, memory is a dynamic phenomenon. The once widely accepted view Thalidomide that such consolidated memories are immune to modification has since been refuted. Consolidated memories may be reactivated during new experiences, at which point they become susceptible to distortion, deletion, or updating 1, 2 and 3. Conversely, reactivated memories may also influence how new content is encoded 4•• and 5. Here, we review the recent work in cognitive and behavioral neuroscience that investigates the complex ways in which memories influence one another and change over time. One way such mutual influence may occur is through memory integration.